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A族链球菌感染的传染病学及防控策略
中华实用儿科临床杂志, 2022,37(21) : 1637-1640. DOI: 10.3760/cma.j.cn101070-20220615-00717
摘要

A族链球菌(GAS)是一种具有公共卫生意义的病原体,每年在全球感染1 810万人,导致50万人死亡。GAS常通过呼吸道飞沫、接触破损的皮肤等传播。儿童、老年人和免疫功能低下者是感染GAS的高危人群,学校、幼儿园、医院和养老院等人群密集地区是GAS传播的高发区域。预防和控制措施应关注改善生活条件及个人手卫生。在高风险环境中应强调遵守感染预防和控制措施。现总结GAS感染的传染病学要点及防控策略,旨在为GAS的防控提供依据。

引用本文: 禹定乐, 高外外, 卢清华, 等.  A族链球菌感染的传染病学及防控策略 [J] . 中华实用儿科临床杂志, 2022, 37(21) : 1637-1640. DOI: 10.3760/cma.j.cn101070-20220615-00717.
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A族链球菌(Group A Streptococcus,GAS)是一种革兰阳性细菌病原体,可引起非侵袭性、侵袭性疾病(invasive GAS disease,iGAS)以及感染后免疫并发症,包括咽炎、猩红热、脓疱病、蜂窝织炎、坏死性筋膜炎、链球菌中毒性休克综合征、急性风湿热和链球菌感染后肾小球肾炎等[1]。目前约有1 810万人患有严重的GAS疾病,每年新增病例178万,死亡50万[2]。据报道,20世纪,发达国家由于生活条件改善等原因,GAS感染发病率有所下降[3]。然而GAS菌株的遗传变化和/或宿主对感染易感性的变化会导致特定疾病的发病率急剧增加[4,5]。20世纪80年代全球出现iGAS疾病的增加,东北亚和英国地区出现猩红热的区域性增加[6]。每次发病率的增加都与出现致病能力增强的新GAS菌株有关。据报道,2005年至2012年美国iGAS感染率为3.8/10万人年,保持稳定,每年有1 116人死亡[7],2015年美国报告iGAS患者超过15 000例、死亡达1 600例[8]。加拿大GAS感染率由2003年的2.4/10万人年升高为2015年的5.24/10万人年[9]。在英国iGAS发病率为每年2.9/10万人[10]。通常,GAS感染和相关后遗症在社会经济较低的地区更为普遍[11,12],包括发展中国家和发达国家的弱势群体[9,13]。但我国缺乏GAS发病率的相关数据。目前迫切需要改进公共卫生战略,以防止GAS疾病的传播。本研究目的是确定人口风险因素和潜在的公共卫生预防和控制策略,以减少GAS疾病的传播。

1 GAS感染的传染病学
1.1 流行范围

尽管明确记录GAS相关疾病已有数百年,但其仍然在全球范围内造成沉重的疾病负担和死亡负担。研究表明,GAS疾病在发展中国家[14]、发达国家的土著人群[9,13,15]和社会经济水平较低的地区[8]很常见,但社会经济水平较高的地区,如在拥挤的学校和护理机构等环境中的人群发病率也较高[16,17,18]。总的来说,GAS感染对象主要是欠发达国家和地区的儿童和年轻人[19]

要明确GAS流行区域常常受到疾病报告制度的影响,并非所有GAS疾病都被要求上报。少数国家,如英格兰、威尔士、日本、加拿大、挪威、中国和美国等卫生部门要求医疗系统上报特定的GAS疾病,但并没有要求所有GAS感染相关的临床疾病都上报,如日本和美国要求上报链球菌中毒性休克综合征[20],加拿大和挪威要求上报所有iGAS疾病[9,21],而在中国,只要求上报猩红热[22]。有些国家仅在特定地区有上报规定,如在澳大利亚,只有北领地和昆士兰州需要上报GAS疾病[13]

1.2 传染源

GAS感染的患者、隐性感染者、恢复期带菌者是GAS感染的传染源。

1.3 传播途径

人类是GAS的唯一天然宿主,通常以携带者状态存在于人类的肛门、阴道、咽部或皮肤,不引起疾病[23]。GAS主要是通过呼吸道飞沫、接触感染者或其破损的皮肤传播[24,25,26],还可通过受污染的食物等传播[26]

1.4 高危人群

GAS感染的高危人群包括有基础疾病者[9,27]、儿童[10,28]和老年人[9,29],孕产妇也是患GAS疾病的高危群体[30,31,32]。既往有基础疾病和/或合并感染者,例如流感、营养不良、糖尿病、获得性免疫缺陷综合征者更易感染GAS[9,27]。研究显示男性感染GAS的风险更高[33,34]。我国一项研究显示,男童的猩红热发病率是女童的1.54倍[33]。有学者将这种高风险归因于男童多动及个人卫生相对较差的特点[35],但确切原因尚不清楚。

1.5 GAS感染相关的环境因素

GAS感染相关的常见环境包括学校、托儿所、幼儿园[24,35]、医院[30]、收容所[36,37]、疗养院[16,17,18,29]和军事训练机构[38]等。有学者对2005年至2015年中国香港猩红热流行病学数据的回顾发现,在学校开学的月份感染率更高[6]

住房不足被确定为GAS感染相关疾病的主要危险因素,包括无家可归[9,15,34]、住房拥挤[28]、家庭资源有限[13,39]、住房条件差等[40]。社会经济地位低[8,40]、烟草烟雾环境暴露[41]、昆虫叮咬、皮肤损伤、接触无症状者[42]等也是危险因素[13,27,39,43]。除此之外,还有一些促进GAS感染传播的危险因素,尤其是在医院和疗养院中,包括感染控制不当导致医护人员、其他患者等交叉感染[26,30,44]

除此之外,医疗机构的污染也是不容忽视的风险因素,如共用设备、窗帘、家具、墙壁、地板等[45,46]。感染控制流程不规范,如共用设备未消毒或消毒不规范、个人防护设备使用不当、废物管理和处置不当、伤口护理不当等,也会导致GAS传播[18,26,45]

2 防控策略

GAS感染的预控策略应该具有可行性,尤其是在资源匮乏的环境中[3]。目前多数可用的干预策略更侧重于临床,而社区可行的防控策略有限[47]。现有的公共卫生战略侧重于最大限度地减少传播并保护易感人群。

2.1 初级防控策略

初级防控策略包括进行流行病学调查、改进监测系统[48,49,50]、改善住房质量[40]、避免过度拥挤[13]、采取呼吸道预防措施(如戴口罩、手卫生)、避免共用可能被唾液污染的物品等[39]。注意环境卫生,包括常见接触区域的清洁和卫生,注重对共用设备定期清洁消毒(尤其是在医院内[45])、彻底清洁窗帘和公共设施(如浴室和厕所)[30]。适当的感染控制也是预防GAS感染的关键,包括正确使用个人防护设备、正确处置医疗废物等[26,30]。对医务工作者、无症状携带者进行筛查,对弱势群体进行暴露后预防[10,26]。对医疗保健提供者、社区工作人员进行健康宣传教育也是预防GAS感染的关键[13,51]

2.2 早期诊断和治疗

早期诊断和治疗是预防和控制iGAS感染和轻度感染并发症的有效方法[13,14,32,52]。在医疗机构中,有效的感染控制程序对预防GAS感染至关重要[26,30,44]。早期使用抗生素对于减少传播至关重要。

2.3 改进检测方法和暴发调查工具

改进检测方法和暴发调查工具,可提高对GAS感染的早期检测、暴发的早期识别、降低传播率[53]

2.4 完善报告制度

GAS是一种重要的全球性病原体,临床表现多样且流行病学数据局限[3,19]。目前,大多数国家缺乏强制性报告制度,这无疑限制了公共卫生有效瞄准、防控GAS疾病的能力[48,49,50]。不仅仅要关注疾病的临床管理,也要注重社区层面的预防。努力完善报告制度,并在社区层面扩大公共和环境卫生干预措施,同时有效治疗病例,将有助于降低传播率。

2.5 其他控制GAS传播的潜在方法

迄今为止尚无可上市使用的控制GAS感染的疫苗。降低抗生素耐药性可提高治疗成功率,进而减少GAS感染的传播。还有研究提出,对妊娠期妇女筛查iGAS,以防止将GAS传染给其他高危孕妇[31]

3 结语

在全球范围内,GAS感染及其引发的相关疾病仍然是一个重要的公共卫生问题。公共卫生防控政策应侧重于预防GAS的传播。学龄儿童中GAS疾病的发病率特别高,应该是实施防控策略的重点对象。政府还需要更加公平地分配资源,以提高公众生活的基本水平,从而减轻GAS感染相关疾病的负担。

利益冲突
利益冲突

所有作者均声明不存在利益冲突

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