Consensus on the management of liver injury associated with targeted drugs and immune checkpoint inhibitors for hepatocellular carcinoma ( version 2024)
Society of Hepatology, Chinese Medical Association
Nan Yuemin
Xu Xiaoyuan
Authors Info & Affiliations
Society of Hepatology, Chinese Medical Association
Nan Yuemin
Department of Traditional and Western Medical Hepatology & Department of Gastroenterology, Hebei Medical University Third Hospital, Shijiazhuang 050051, China
Xu Xiaoyuan
Department of Gastroenterology, Peking University First Hospital, Beijing 100034, China
With the widespread application of systemic treatments for hepatocellular carcinoma, liver injury caused by molecular targeted drugs and immune checkpoint inhibitors has become a common clinical problem. The Chinese Society of Hepatology organized relevant domestic experts to summarize and analyze the adverse liver reactions and diagnosis and treatment progress related to systemic treatment of liver cancer at home and abroad, and formulated the "Consensus on the management of liver injury associated with targeted drugs and immune checkpoint inhibitors for hepatocellular carcinoma," aiming to provide reasonable suggestions and decision-making references for clinical physicians in liver disease and related specialties in the monitoring, diagnosis, prevention and treatment of liver injury during the treatment of targeted drugs and immune checkpoint inhibitors for hepatocellular carcinoma, so as to enable more liver cancer patients to benefit from targeted immune therapy.
Nan Yuemin, Department of Traditional and Western Medical Hepatology & Department of Gastroenterology, Hebei Medical University Third Hospital, Shijiazhuang 050051, China, Email:
mocdef.3ab61nimeuynan
Xu Xiaoyuan, Department of Gastroenterology, Peking University First Hospital, Beijing 100034, China, Email:
mocdef.3ab616uxnauyoaix
Copyright by Chinese Medical Association
No content published by the journals of Chinese Medical Association may be reproduced or abridged without authorization. Please do not use or copy the layout and design of the journals without permission.
All articles published represent the opinions of the authors, and do not reflect the official policy of the Chinese Medical Association or the Editorial Board, unless this is clearly specified.
随着肝癌诊断及治疗技术水平的提升、新型抗肿瘤药物的研发及应用,分子靶向治疗药物及免疫检查点抑制剂(immune checkpoint inhibitors,ICIs)作为肝细胞癌(hepatocellular carcinoma,HCC)系统治疗的主要方案获得了一定临床效果,而对治疗药物安全性及相关肝损伤的管理,是确保抗肿瘤效果及改善预后的重要策略。自2020年以来,随着阿替利珠单克隆抗体(简称单抗)联合贝伐珠单抗在欧洲肿瘤内科学会(European Society for Medical Oncology,ESMO)《原发性肝癌诊疗指南》中被推荐为不可切除HCC一线治疗方案,多种新型靶向药物、ICIs及联合治疗方案获得指南推荐并应用于临床。为更好地指导临床医师及时发现、及时诊断及合理、规范处理相关肝损伤、提高抗肿瘤治疗客观缓解率、改善患者生活质量及延长其生存期,中华医学会肝病学分会组织国内肝病学、肿瘤学、肝胆外科学等领域专家,依据国内外HCC分子靶向药物及ICIs治疗相关指南及共识,在启动治疗前对肝脏储备功能及肝脏生物化学指标的评估,治疗过程中不同治疗方案肝毒性及相关肝损伤的发生时机、主要机制、临床病理学特征以及预防、监测及诊断、治疗的研究进展,制定《肝细胞癌靶向药物及免疫检查点抑制剂相关肝损伤管理共识(2024年版)》。
本共识经由中华医学会组织、遴选相关专家收集HCC治疗方面相关文献,将荟萃分析、随机对照研究、非对照研究、观察研究、队列研究、病例报告、共识及指南意见、专家观点等纳入本共识的参考文献,共识的制定过程遵循国内外权威学术组织制定指南共识的基本流程和程序,确定目标人群、使用者和临床问题等,采用德尔菲法和名义群体法等得出推荐意见及等级。“共识”制定遵循世界卫生组织在内的国际组织证据等级与推荐分级的评价、制定与评估(Grading of Recommendations Assessment,Development,and Evaluation system,GRADE)循证医学原则,推荐意见的证据质量分为A、B、C、D等级,推荐等级分为强(1)和弱(2),见
表1
。旨在为肝病及相关专业的临床医师提供有关HCC分子靶向药物及ICIs治疗前、治疗过程中相关肝损伤的监测、诊断、预防及救治的合理建议和决策参考。临床医师可依据本“共识”,充分了解相关病因疾病状况、HCC治疗相关肝损伤的危险因素、发病时机及特点,在全面考虑患者具体病情及治疗需求的基础上,制订全面合理的肝损伤预防、监测、救治及管理方案。随着新型分子靶向药物及ICIs的研发及临床应用经验的积累,本“共识”将根据最新临床医学证据不断更新和完善。
级别
具体描述
证据质量
高(A)
进一步研究不可能改变对该疗效评估结果的可信度
中(B)
对观察值有中等程度信心:真实值有可能接近观察值,但仍存在两者不同的可能性
低(C)
对观察值的确信程度有限:真实值可能与观察值不同
极低(D)
对观察值信心较低:真实值很可能与观察值不同
推荐强度等级
强(1)
明确显示干预措施利大于弊或弊大于利
弱(2)
利弊不确定或无论质量高低的证据均显示利弊相当
展开表格
推荐意见的证据质量和强度等级
一、术语
1. HCC:肝实质细胞异常增生发生的恶性肿瘤,肝组织病理学分化程度可依据世界卫生组织高、中、低分化或Edmondson-Steiner四级(Ⅰ~Ⅳ)分级法。中国肝癌的分期方案(China liver cancer staging,CNLC)包括CNLC Ⅰa、Ⅰb、Ⅱa、Ⅱb、Ⅲa、Ⅲb及Ⅳ期。
3.ICIs:免疫检查点是指在免疫细胞上表达、能调节免疫激活程度的一系列分子,包括程序性细胞死亡蛋白受体1(programmed cell death 1,PD-1)、程序性细胞死亡蛋白配体1(programmed cell death ligand 1,PD-L1)和T淋巴细胞相关抗原4(cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated antigen-4,CTLA-4)等,ICIs以PD-1、PD-L1、CTLA-4为作用靶点调节机体自身的免疫反应,发挥抗肿瘤作用。
中国临床肿瘤学会(Chinese Society of Clinical Oncology,CSCO)的《原发性肝癌诊疗指南(2024年版)》
[
1
]
、美国临床肿瘤学会(America Society of Clinical Oncology,ASCO)的《晚期肝细胞癌系统治疗指南更新版》
[
2
]
等,均推荐阿替利珠单抗联合贝伐珠单抗和度伐利尤单抗联合替西木单抗为HCC患者一线优选治疗方案,同时推荐索拉非尼、仑伐替尼、度伐利尤单抗作为一线及二线治疗药物。中国指南结合我国国情推荐信迪利单抗联合贝伐珠单抗类似物、卡瑞利珠单抗联合阿帕替尼、度伐利尤单抗联合替西木单抗、多纳非尼、仑伐替尼、索拉非尼作为一线治疗方案,瑞戈非尼、阿帕替尼、卡博替尼、卡瑞利珠单抗、替雷利珠单抗、帕博利珠单抗、纳武利尤单抗联合伊匹木单抗、雷莫芦单抗为二线治疗方案。上述药物获得HCC治疗效果的同时,所导致肝损伤的早期发现、分级评估及处理是保障抗肿瘤治疗方案实施的重要方面。分子靶向药物和ICIs作为中晚期肝癌的主要治疗方案及早期肝癌抗复发治疗方案,均有导致不同程度肝损伤的报道。
Kudo M , Finn RS , Qin S ,et al. Lenvatinib versus sorafenib in first-line treatment of patients with unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma: a randomised phase 3 non-inferiority trial[J]. Lancet, 2018,391(10126):1163-1173. DOI:
10.1016/S0140-6736(18)30207-1
.
Qin S , Bi F , Gu S ,et al. Donafenib versus sorafenib in first-line treatment of unresectable or metastatic hepatocellular carcinoma: a randomized, open-label, parallel-controlled phase Ⅱ-Ⅲ trial[J]. J Clin Oncol, 2021,39(27):3002-3011. DOI:
10.1200/JCO.21.00163
.
Qin S , Li Q , Gu S ,et al. Apatinib as second-line or later therapy in patients with advanced hepatocellular carcinoma (AHELP): a multicentre, double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial[J]. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol, 2021,6(7):559-568. DOI:
10.1016/S2468-1253(21)00109-6
.
Abou-Alfa GK , Meyer T , Cheng AL ,et al. Cabozantinib in patients with advanced and progressing hepatocellular carcinoma[J]. N Engl J Med, 2018,379(1):54-63. DOI:
10.1056/NEJMoa1717002
.
Zhu AX , Park JO , Ryoo BY ,et al. Ramucirumab versus placebo as second-line treatment in patients with advanced hepatocellular carcinoma following first-line therapy with sorafenib (REACH): a randomised, double-blind, multicentre, phase 3 trial[J]. Lancet Oncol, 2015,16(7):859-870. DOI:
10.1016/S1470-2045(15)00050-9
.
Kim BH , Yu SJ , Kang W ,et al. Expert consensus on the management of adverse events in patients receiving lenvatinib for hepatocellular carcinoma[J]. J Gastroenterol Hepatol, 2022,37(3):428-439. DOI:
10.1111/jgh.15727
.
Rimassa L , Danesi R , Pressiani T ,et al. Management of adverse events associated with tyrosine kinase inhibitors: improving outcomes for patients with hepatocellular carcinoma[J]. Cancer Treat Rev, 2019,77:20-28. DOI:
10.1016/j.ctrv.2019.05.004
.
Qin S , Chen Z , Fang W ,et al. Pembrolizumab versus placebo as second-line therapy in patients from Asia with advanced hepatocellular carcinoma: a randomized, double-blind, phase Ⅲ trial[J]. J Clin Oncol, 2023,41(7):1434-1443. DOI:
10.1200/JCO.22.00620
.
Kudo M . Durvalumab plus tremelimumab: a novel combination immunotherapy for unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma[J]. Liver Cancer, 2022,11(2):87-93. DOI:
10.1159/000523702
.
France NL , Blair HA . Tremelimumab: a review in advanced or unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma[J]. Target Oncol, 2024,19(1):115-123. DOI:
10.1007/s11523-023-01026-9
.
Yau T , Kang YK , Kim TY ,et al. Efficacy and safety of nivolumab plus ipilimumab in patients with advanced hepatocellular carcinoma previously treated with sorafenib: the CheckMate 040 randomized clinical trial[J]. JAMA Oncol, 2020,6(11):e204564. DOI:
10.1001/jamaoncol.2020.4564
.
Zhang Y , Wang M , Chen Q ,et al. Adverse events of immune checkpoint inhibitor-based therapies for unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma in prospective clinical trials: a systematic review and meta-analysis[J]. Liver Cancer, 2023,12(6):521-538. DOI:
10.1159/000528698
.
Celsa C , Cabibbo G , Fulgenzi C ,et al. Characteristics and outcomes of immunotherapy-related liver injury in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma versus other advanced solid tumours[J]. J Hepatol, 2024,80(3):431-442. DOI:
10.1016/j.jhep.2023.10.040
.
Xiang YJ , Wang K , Yu HM ,et al. Transarterial chemoembolization plus a PD-1 inhibitor with or without lenvatinib for intermediate-stage hepatocellular carcinoma[J]. Hepatol Res, 2022,52(8):721-729. DOI:
10.1111/hepr.13773
.
Li F , Wang T , Tang F ,et al. Fatal acute-on-chronic liver failure following camrelizumab for hepatocellular carcinoma with HBsAg seroclearance: a case report and literature review[J]. Front Med (Lausanne), 2023,10:1231597. DOI:
10.3389/fmed.2023.1231597
.
Wang WJ , Liu ZH , Wang K ,et al. Efficacy and safety of TACE combined with lenvatinib and PD-1 inhibitors for unresectable recurrent HCC: a multicenter, retrospective study[J]. Cancer Med, 2023,12(10):11513-11524. DOI:
10.1002/cam4.5880
.
Yang XG , Sun YY , Wang HQ ,et al. Efficacy and safety of transarterial chemoembolization combining sorafenib with or without immune checkpoint inhibitors in previously treated patients with advanced hepatocellular carcinoma: a propensity score matching analysis[J]. Front Oncol, 2022,12:914385. DOI:
10.3389/fonc.2022.914385
.
Feng JK , Liu ZH , Fu ZG ,et al. Efficacy and safety of transarterial chemoembolization plus antiangiogenic-targeted therapy and immune checkpoint inhibitors for unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma with portal vein tumor thrombus in the real world[J]. Front Oncol, 2022,12:954203. DOI:
10.3389/fonc.2022.954203
.
Han Z , Yang F , Zhang Y ,et al. Prognostic efficacy and prognostic factors of TACE plus TKI with ICIs for the treatment of unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma: a retrospective study[J]. Front Oncol, 2022,12:1029951. DOI:
10.3389/fonc.2022.1029951
.
Lau G , Yu ML , Wong G ,et al. APASL clinical practice guideline on hepatitis B reactivation related to the use of immunosuppressive therapy[J]. Hepatol Int, 2021,15(5):1031-1048. DOI:
10.1007/s12072-021-10239-x
.
Personeni N , Pressiani T , D'Alessio A ,et al. Hepatotoxicity in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma on treatment with immune heckpoint inhibitors[J]. Cancers (Basel), 2021,13(22):5665-5676. DOI:
10.3390/cancers13225665
.
Zhang X , Zhou Y , Chen C ,et al. Hepatitis B virus reactivation in cancer patients with positive Hepatitis B surface antigen undergoing PD-1 inhibition[J]. J Immunother Cancer, 2019,7(1):322. DOI:
10.1186/s40425-019-0808-5
.
De Keukeleire SJ , Vermassen T , Nezhad ZM ,et al. Managing viral hepatitis in cancer patients under immune checkpoint inhibitors: should we take the risk?[J]. Immunotherapy, 2021,13(5):409-418. DOI:
10.2217/imt-2020-0273
.
Marrero JA , Kudo M , Venook AP ,et al. Observational registry of sorafenib use in clinical practice across Child-Pugh subgroups: the GIDEON study[J]. J Hepatol, 2016,65(6):1140-1147. DOI:
10.1016/j.jhep.2016.07.020
.
Kim HD , Bang Y , Lee MA ,et al. Regorafenib in patients with advanced Child-Pugh B hepatocellular carcinoma: a multicentre retrospective study[J]. Liver Int, 2020,40(10):2544-2552. DOI:
10.1111/liv.14573
.
Peer CJ , Sissung TM , Kim A ,et al. Sorafenib is an inhibitor of UGT1A1 but is metabolized by UGT1A9: implications of genetic variants on pharmacokinetics and hyperbilirubinemia[J]. Clin Cancer Res, 2012,18(7):2099-2107. DOI:
10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-11-2484
.
Meza-Junco J , Chu QS , Christensen O ,et al. UGT1A1 polymorphism and hyperbilirubinemia in a patient who received sorafenib[J]. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol, 2009,65(1):1-4. DOI:
10.1007/s00280-009-1096-4
.
Sacré A , Lanthier N , Dano H ,et al. Regorafenib induced severe toxic hepatitis: characterization and discussion[J]. Liver Int, 2016,36(11):1590-1594. DOI:
10.1111/liv.13217
.
Bruix J , Qin S , Merle P ,et al. Regorafenib for patients with hepatocellular carcinoma who progressed on sorafenib treatment (RESORCE): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial[J]. Lancet, 2017,389(10064):56-66. DOI:
10.1016/S0140-6736(16)32453-9
.
Qin S , Chan SL , Gu S ,et al. Camrelizumab plus rivoceranib versus sorafenib as first-line therapy for unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma (CARES-310): a randomised, open-label, international phase 3 study[J]. Lancet, 2023,402(10408):1133-1146. DOI:
10.1016/S0140-6736(23)00961-3
.
Cho YA , Han JM , Kang SY ,et al. Analysis of risk factors for hepatotoxicity induced by immune checkpoint inhibitors[J]. J Immunother, 2021,44(1):16-21. DOI:
10.1097/CJI.0000000000000347
.
Kudo M . Newly developed modified ALBI grade shows better prognostic and predictive value for hepatocellular carcinoma[J]. Liver Cancer, 2022,11(1):1-8. DOI:
10.1159/000521374
.
Tian BW , Yan LJ , Ding ZN ,et al. Evaluating liver function and the impact of immune checkpoint inhibitors in the prognosis of hepatocellular carcinoma patients: a systemic review and meta-analysis[J]. Int Immunopharmacol, 2023,114:109519. DOI:
10.1016/j.intimp.2022.109519
.
Abdel-Wahab N , Shah M , Lopez-Olivo MA ,et al. Use of immune checkpoint inhibitors in the treatment of patients with cancer and preexisting autoimmune disease: a systematic review[J]. Ann Intern Med, 2018,168(2):121-130. DOI:
10.7326/M17-2073
.
European Association for the Study of the Liver. EASL clinical practice guidelines: drug-induced liver injury[J]. J Hepatol, 2019,70(6):1222-1261. DOI:
10.1016/j.jhep.2019.02.014
.
Garzel B , Zhang L , Huang SM ,et al. A change in bile flow: looking beyond transporter inhibition in the development of drug-induced cholestasis[J]. Curr Drug Metab, 2019,20(8):621-632. DOI:
10.2174/1389200220666190709170256
.
Raschi E , De Ponti F . Strategies for early prediction and timely recognition of drug-induced liver injury: the case of cyclin-dependent kinase 4/6 inhibitors[J]. Front Pharmacol, 2019,10:1235. DOI:
10.3389/fphar.2019.01235
.
Takimoto T , Kijima T , Otani Y ,et al. Polymorphisms of CYP2D6 gene and gefitinib-induced hepatotoxicity[J]. Clin Lung Cancer, 2013,14(5):502-507. DOI:
10.1016/j.cllc.2013.03.003
.
Weng Z , Luo Y , Yang X ,et al. Regorafenib impairs mitochondrial functions, activates AMP-activated protein kinase, induces autophagy, and causes rat hepatocyte necrosis[J]. Toxicology, 2015,327:10-21. DOI:
10.1016/j.tox.2014.11.002
.
Xue T , Luo P , Zhu H ,et al. Oxidative stress is involved in dasatinib-induced apoptosis in rat primary hepatocytes[J]. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 2012,261(3):280-291. DOI:
10.1016/j.taap.2012.04.010
.
Mingard C , Paech F , Bouitbir J ,et al. Mechanisms of toxicity associated with six tyrosine kinase inhibitors in human hepatocyte cell lines[J]. J Appl Toxicol, 2018,38(3):418-431. DOI:
10.1002/jat.3551
.
Paech F , Bouitbir J , Krahenbuhl S . Hepatocellular toxicity associated with tyrosine kinase inhibitors: mitochondrial damage and inhibition of glycolysis[J]. Front Pharmacol, 2017,8:367. DOI:
10.3389/fphar.2017.00367
.
Zhang J , Salminen A , Yang X ,et al. Effects of 31 FDA approved small-molecule kinase inhibitors on isolated rat liver mitochondria[J]. Arch Toxicol, 2017,91(8):2921-2938. DOI:
10.1007/s00204-016-1918-1
.
Spigel DR , Reynolds C , Waterhouse D ,et al. Phase 1/2 study of the safety and tolerability of nivolumab plus crizotinib for the first-line treatment of anaplastic lymphoma kinase translocation-positive advanced non-small cell lung cancer (CheckMate 370)[J]. J Thorac Oncol, 2018,13(5):682-688. DOI:
10.1016/j.jtho.2018.02.022
.
Liu P , Zhao L , Pol J ,et al. Crizotinib-induced immunogenic cell death in non-small cell lung cancer[J]. Nat Commun, 2019,10(1):1486. DOI:
10.1038/s41467-019-09415-3
.
Hirasawa M , Hagihara K , Okudaira N ,et al. The possible mechanism of idiosyncratic lapatinib-induced liver injury in patients carrying human leukocyte antigen-DRB1*07:01[J]. PLoS One, 2015,10(6):e0130928. DOI:
10.1371/journal.pone.0130928
.
Xu CF , Johnson T , Wang X ,et al. HLA-B*57:01 confers susceptibility to pazopanib-associated Lliver injury in patients with cancer[J]. ClinCancer Res, 2016,22(6):1371-1377. DOI:
10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-15-2044
.
Yang H , Yao Z , Zhou X ,et al. Immune-related adverse events of checkpoint inhibitors: insights into immunological dysregulation[J]. Clin Immunol, 2020,213:108377. DOI:
10.1016/j.clim.2020.108377
.
Das R , Verma R , Sznol M ,et al. Combination therapy with anti-CTLA-4 and anti-PD-1 leads to distinct immunologic changes in vivo[J]. J Immunol, 2015,194(3):950-959. DOI:
10.4049/jimmunol.1401686
.
Riaz N , Havel JJ , Makarov V ,et al. Tumor and microenvironment evolution during immunotherapy with nivolumab[J]. Cell, 2017,171(4):934-949. DOI:
10.1016/j.cell.2017.09.028
.
Arce VF , Furness A , Litchfield K ,et al. Fc effector function contributes to the activity of human anti-CTLA-4 antibodies[J]. Cancer Cell, 2018,33(4):649-663. DOI:
10.1016/j.ccell.2018.02.010
.
Simpson TR , Li F , Montalvo-Ortiz W ,et al. Fc-dependent depletion of tumor-infiltrating regulatory T cells co-definesthe efficacy of anti-CTLA-4 therapy against melanoma[J]. J Exp Med, 2013,210(9):1695-1710. DOI:
10.1084/jem.20130579
.
Kumar P , Saini S , Prabhakar BS . Cancer immunotherapy with check point inhibitor can cause autoimmune adverse events due to loss of Treg homeostasis[J]. Semin Cancer Biol, 2020,64:29-35. DOI:
10.1016/j.semcancer.2019.01.006
.
Suzman DL , Pelosof L , Rosenberg A ,et al. Hepatotoxicity of immune checkpoint inhibitors: an evolving picture of risk associated with a vital class of immunotherapy agents[J]. Liver Int, 2018,38(6):976-987. DOI:
10.1111/liv.13746
.
De Martin E , Michot JM , Papouin B ,et al. Characterization of liver injury induced by cancer immunotherapy using immune checkpoint inhibitors[J]. J Hepatol, 2018,68(6):1181-1190. DOI:
10.1016/j.jhep.2018.01.033
.
Yamashita T , Kudo M , Ikeda K ,et al. REFLECT-a phase 3 trial comparing efficacy and safety of lenvatinib to sorafenib for the treatment of unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma: an analysis of Japanese subset[J]. J Gastroenterol, 2020,55(1):113-122. DOI:
10.1007/s00535-019-01642-1
.
Ren Z , Xu J , Bai Y ,et al. Sintilimab plus a bevacizumab biosimilar (IBI305) versus sorafenib in unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma (ORIENT-32): a randomised, open-label, phase 2-3 study[J]. Lancet Oncol, 2021,22(7):977-990. DOI:
10.1016/S1470-2045(21)00252-7
.
Pi B , Wang J , Tong Y ,et al. Immune-related cholangitis induced by immune checkpoint inhibitors: a systematic review of clinical features and management[J]. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol, 2021,33(1S):Suppl 1-e858. 867DOI:
10.1097/MEG.0000000000002280
.
Bechade D , Desjardin M , Castain C ,et al. Fatal acute liver failure as a consequence of regorafenib treatment in a metastatic colon cancer[J]. Case Rep Oncol, 2017,10(2):790-794. DOI:
10.1159/000479732
.
Wang QL , Li XJ , Yao ZC ,et al. Sorafenib-induced acute-on-chronic liver failure in a patient with hepatocellular carcinoma after transarterial chemoembolization and radiofrequency ablation: a case report[J]. Mol Clin Oncol, 2017,7(4):693-695. DOI:
10.3892/mco.2017.1363
.
Fairfax BP , Pratap S , Roberts IS ,et al. Fatal case of sorafenib-associated idiosyncratic hepatotoxicity in the adjuvant treatment of a patient with renal cell carcinoma[J]. BMC Cancer, 2012,12:590. DOI:
10.1186/1471-2407-12-590
.
Murad W , Rabinowitz I , Lee FC . Sorafenib-induced grade four hepatotoxicity in a patient with recurrent gastrointestinal stromal tumor (GIST): a case report and review of literature[J]. ACG Case Rep J, 2014,1(2):115-117. DOI:
10.14309/crj.2014.19
.
Cohen JV , Dougan M , Zubiri L ,et al. Liver biopsy findings in patients on immune checkpoint inhibitors[J]. Mod Pathol, 2021,34(2):426-437. DOI:
10.1038/s41379-020-00653-1
.
Zen Y , Yeh MM . Checkpoint inhibitor-induced liver injury: a novel form of liver disease emerging in the era of cancer immunotherapy[J]. Semin Diagn Pathol, 2019,36(6):434-440. DOI:
10.1053/j.semdp.2019.07.009
.
Mekki A , Dercle L , Lichtenstein P ,et al. Detection of immune-related adverse events by medical imaging in patients treated with anti-programmed cell death 1[J]. Eur J Cancer, 2018,96:91-104. DOI:
10.1016/j.ejca.2018.03.006
.
Freites-Martinez A , Santana N , Arias-Santiago S ,et al. Using the common terminology criteria for adverse events (CTCAE-version 5.0) to evaluate the severity of adverse events of anticancer therapies[J]. Actas Dermosifiliogr (Engl Ed), 2021,112(1):90-92. DOI:
10.1016/j.ad.2019.05.009
.
Tsung I , Dolan R , Lao CD ,et al. Liver injury is most commonly due to hepatic metastases rather than drug hepatotoxicity during pembrolizumab immunotherapy[J]. Aliment Pharmacol Ther, 2019,50(7):800-808. DOI:
10.1111/apt.15413
.
Shyam SS , Sharma UC , Pokharel S . Adverse effects of tyrosine kinase inhibitors in cancer therapy: pathophysiology, mechanisms and clinical management[J]. Signal Transduct Target Ther, 2023,8(1):262. DOI:
10.1038/s41392-023-01469-6
.
Sangro B , Gomez-Martin C , de la Mata M ,et al. A clinical trial of CTLA-4 blockade with tremelimumab in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma and chronic hepatitis C[J]. J Hepatol, 2013,59(1):81-88. DOI:
10.1016/j.jhep.2013.02.022
.
Omori G , Takada K , Murase K ,et al. Successful mycophenolate mofetil treatment of a patient with severe steroid-refractory hepatitis evoked by nivolumab plus ipilimumab treatment for relapsed bladder cancer[J]. Clin Case Rep, 2021,9(2):654-659. DOI:
10.1002/ccr3.3597
.
Da Cunha T , Wu GY , Vaziri H . Immunotherapy-induced Hepatotoxicity: a review[J]. J Clin Transl Hepatol, 2022,10(6):1194-1204.
10.14218/JCTH.2022.00105
.